1. Introduction: The Criticality of Draft Induction in Modern HVAC Architecture

The evolution of residential heating systems from atmospheric draft designs to high-efficiency induced draft architectures has fundamentally altered the maintenance landscape of the modern furnace. Central to this architecture in the Goodman GMNT040-3 gas furnace is the draft inducer assembly, specifically the Goodman B4833000S (OEM) and its primary aftermarket counterpart, the Packard 48331. While manufacturer literature and industry standard operating procedures rigidly categorize these components as “non-serviceable” Line Replaceable Units (LRUs), a rigorous electromechanical analysis reveals that field refurbishment—specifically bearing replacement and emergency lubrication—is technically feasible.

This report serves as a definitive, expert-level dissertation on the forensic disassembly, failure analysis, and remanufacturing of these specific shaded-pole motor assemblies. It addresses the user’s requirement for a bearing replacement solution despite the “sealed” nature of the unit, and provides exhaustive protocols for emergency lubrication to bridge the operational gap during part procurement. The analysis extends beyond simple repair instructions to encompass the tribological physics of bearing failure, the metallurgy of shaft seizures, and the fluid dynamics of combustion air transport, ensuring a nuanced understanding of the risks and methodologies involved.

1.1 Operational Theory of the GMNT040-3 Induction System

To understand the imperative of the repair, one must first dissect the function of the component within the Goodman GMNT040-3 chassis. Unlike legacy furnaces that relied on the buoyancy of hot flue gases (thermal draft) to exit the structure, the GMNT040-3 utilizes a “negative pressure” or “induced draft” combustion circuit.¹

The draft inducer motor (Packard 48331 or Goodman B4833000S) is the prime mover of this system. Upon a call for heat (W signal) from the thermostat, the control board energizes the inducer motor before any other component. This initiates a “pre-purge” cycle, typically lasting 15 to 30 seconds, designed to scour the heat exchanger of any residual combustible gases or toxic byproducts remaining from the previous cycle.¹

Mechanically, the inducer drives a centrifugal blower wheel housed within a plastic volute or collector box. This wheel creates a localized region of low pressure (vacuum) within the heat exchanger and a region of high pressure in the flue vent. This pressure differential is critical for three reasons:

1. Stoichiometric Ratio Control: The volume of air pulled through the burners is directly proportional to the rotational velocity of the inducer wheel. A slowing motor—caused by bearing drag—reduces airflow, leading to a rich mixture, incomplete combustion, soot formation, and elevated carbon monoxide (CO) production.²
2. Safety Interlock Validation: The furnace control board continuously monitors this negative pressure via a pneumatic pressure switch. This switch is calibrated to close only when the vacuum exceeds a specific threshold (e.g., -0.60″ w.c.). If the bearings in the Packard 48331 degrade, increasing rotational friction, the RPM drops. Even a marginal drop in RPM can cause the vacuum pressure to fluctuate or fall below the setpoint, causing the pressure switch to flutter or open, resulting in a hard lockout of the furnace.²
3. Condensate Management: In high-efficiency (condensing) applications or even standard mid-efficiency units with long flue runs, the velocity of the exhaust gas must be sufficient to entrain moisture and eject it or allow it to drain properly. A sluggish motor compromises this fluid dynamic balance, potentially leading to water backing up in the inducer housing, which further loads the motor and accelerates bearing corrosion.

Therefore, the health of the bearings in the B4833000S/Packard 48331 is not merely a matter of acoustic comfort; it is a fundamental safety and operational parameter of the heating plant. The user’s request to repair these bearings addresses a critical failure point that can render the entire HVAC system inoperative during peak heating demand.

1.2 Component Engineering: The Goodman vs. Packard Architecture

A detailed examination of the two subject motors reveals significant engineering divergences that impact the repair strategy. The Goodman B4833000S is the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) designation, typically manufactured by Fasco or Jakel, while the Packard 48331 is the designated aftermarket replacement designed to exceed OEM specifications.³

1.2.1 The Shaded Pole Motor Topology

Both units utilize a Shaded Pole (SP) motor architecture. This is an induction motor design characterized by the use of a copper ring or bar (the “shading coil”) encircling a portion of each pole. The magnetic flux in the shaded portion lags behind the flux in the unshaded portion, creating a weak rotating magnetic field that induces torque in the squirrel-cage rotor.³

• Thermal Inefficiency: Shaded pole motors are robust but notoriously inefficient, often converting only 20-30% of electrical energy into mechanical work, with the remaining 70-80% dissipating as waste heat. For a motor drawing 1.8 Amps at 115 Volts (approx. 200 Watts), nearly 150 Watts of thermal energy is generated continuously within the motor core.³
• Implication for Bearings: This continuous thermal load is the primary enemy of bearing longevity. The heat conducts directly through the stator laminations to the bearing brackets (end bells) and into the bearing races, accelerating the oxidation rate of the lubricating grease.⁶

1.2.2 The Bearing Divergence: Sleeve vs. Ball

The research snippets highlight a critical distinction in the construction of these units, which dictates the refurbishment approach.

• OEM Goodman/Fasco (A188/7021-10958): Many original units installed in the GMNT040-3 utilized Sleeve Bearings (sintered bronze bushings impregnated with oil).⁷ These rely on a hydrodynamic wedge of oil to support the shaft. Over time, the intense heat of the shaded pole motor causes the oil to evaporate or wick away, leaving the porous bronze dry. Once dry, the steel shaft rubs directly against the bronze, leading to rapid wear, ovalization of the bushing, and eventual seizure. Refurbishing a sleeve bearing motor requires pressing out the old bushing and pressing in a new one, or re-impregnating the bronze with oil via vacuum or heat soaking.
• Packard 48331: The aftermarket Packard unit is explicitly engineered with Ball Bearings.³ Ball bearings utilize rolling elements to reduce friction and are generally more durable in high-heat, high-RPM (3200 RPM) applications compared to sleeve bearings. However, they are still susceptible to grease drying. Refurbishing a ball bearing motor involves extracting the bearing cartridge and replacing it with a standard industrial bearing (e.g., 608Z).

Analytical Conclusion: The Packard 48331 represents an engineered upgrade over the legacy sleeve-bearing OEM units. Consequently, if the user’s current motor is a Packard 48331, the repair involves swapping standard radial ball bearings. If it is an older Goodman/Fasco unit, the repair may involve converting from sleeve to ball bearings or sourcing hard-to-find bushings. This report primarily focuses on the ball-bearing architecture (Packard 48331) as the target for refurbishment, as it is the more serviceable of the two designs.

1.3 The Economics of “Non-Serviceable” Classifications

The classification of these motors as “non-serviceable” is driven by economic and liability factors rather than mechanical impossibility.

• Assembly Method: To reduce manufacturing costs, the motor end-bells are typically riveted or crimped to the stator stack rather than bolted. This eliminates the possibility of vibration loosening fasteners but necessitates destructive methods (drilling) for disassembly.¹¹
• Combustion Liability: The motor shaft carries a centrifugal blower wheel that moves combustion gases. If a field technician improperly reassembles the unit—leaving the wheel unbalanced, the set screw loose, or the housing seal compromised—it poses a risk of Carbon Monoxide (CO) leakage or catastrophic mechanical disintegration. Manufacturers mitigate this risk by selling the motor, wheel, and housing as a single, factory-balanced assembly.¹²

However, for a skilled technician or homeowner accepting the risk, the cost differential is staggering. A replacement Packard 48331 assembly retails for $150 – $300.¹³ A pair of high-quality 608Z bearings costs approximately $6 – $12.¹⁵ This 95% cost reduction is the primary driver for the user’s request and validates the need for a detailed repair protocol.

2. Tribology and Failure Forensics: Why the Inducer Failed

To effectively repair the motor and prevent recurrence, one must understand the failure mechanism at a microscopic level. The failure of the Packard 48331 is rarely a fatigue failure of the steel components; it is a tribological failure of the lubrication system.

2.1 The Chemistry of Grease Degradation

The ball bearings in the Packard 48331 (typically shielded 608Z or sealed 608-2RS) are factory-packed with a specific volume of grease. Grease is a semi-solid lubricant consisting of three components:

1. Base Oil (80-90%): The actual lubricant (mineral or synthetic).
2. Thickener (10-20%): A sponge-like structure (soap) that holds the oil in suspension (e.g., Lithium, Polyurea, Calcium Sulfonate).
3. Additives (<5%): Rust inhibitors, anti-oxidants, and extreme pressure (EP) agents.¹⁶

2.1.1 Thermal Oxidation (The Arrhenius Effect)

The shaded pole motor operates at high temperatures, often seeing case temperatures of 140°F – 170°F (60°C – 75°C).6 According to the Arrhenius rate law, the rate of chemical reaction (oxidation) doubles for every 10°C (18°F) rise in temperature.

In the sealed environment of the draft inducer:

• The lighter molecular weight fractions of the base oil volatilize and escape past the bearing seals (outgassing).
• The remaining oil oxidizes, reacting with oxygen to form varnish and sludge.
• The thickener system acts as a “sponge.” As the oil depletes, the sponge dries out, leaving behind a hard, abrasive soap residue.

2.1.2 False Brinelling and Vibration

Draft inducers are subject to induced vibration from the combustion process and the blower wheel itself. When the furnace is off, the motor sits stationary. However, external vibrations or subtle drafts can cause the balls to micro-dither against the race. Without a replenishment of oil (which requires rotation), this micro-motion can squeeze the oil film out of the contact zone, leading to metal-to-metal contact and fretting wear, known as “False Brinelling.”

2.2 Bearing Architecture: The Shield vs. Seal Trade-off

The specific bearing selection in the Packard 48331 influences both its longevity and the feasibility of emergency lubrication.

Feature	Shielded Bearing (Suffix Z or ZZ)	Sealed Bearing (Suffix RS or 2RS)
Material	Metal shield (Steel)	Elastomer seal (Nitrile/Buna-N rubber)
Contact	Non-contact labyrinth gap	Contact lip rubbing on inner race
Friction/Heat	Low friction, cooler running	Higher friction, generates more heat
Protection	Good against large particles, poor against dust/moisture	Excellent against dust and moisture
Lubrication Access	High: Permeable to oil wicking via capillary action	Low: Requires invasive needle injection
Typical Usage	OEM HVAC motors (for efficiency)	Heavy-duty industrial environments

Forensic Insight: Most HVAC inducer motors, including the Packard 48331, utilize Double Shielded (ZZ) bearings to minimize friction losses and maximize RPM. However, the non-contact gap allows the base oil to evaporate more easily over years of heat cycling. Conversely, this same gap is what allows the “Wick and Spin” lubrication method (Section 3.2) to work effectively. If the user finds Sealed (2RS) bearings, the evaporation rate is lower, but re-lubrication is significantly more difficult.¹⁷

2.3 Galvanic Corrosion of the Shaft Interface

A secondary failure mode that complicates repair is the seizure of the blower wheel to the motor shaft.

• The Shaft: Carbon Steel.
• The Hub: Often Die-Cast Zinc or Aluminum, or sometimes a steel insert in plastic.
• The Environment: The combustion exhaust contains water vapor, Carbon Dioxide (forming Carbonic Acid), and Nitrogen Oxides (forming Nitric Acid).
• The Reaction: This acidic, humid environment creates a perfect electrolyte for galvanic corrosion between the dissimilar metals of the shaft and hub. The resulting oxide layer “welds” the two components together, often making non-destructive disassembly impossible.¹⁸ This is often the point where a repair attempt turns into a replacement necessity.

3. The “Band-Aid”: Protocols for Emergency Lubrication

Before committing to a full rebuild, or to survive the lead time for a new motor, re-lubricating the seized or noisy bearings is a viable interim solution. The goal is to re-saturate the dried thickener with fresh base oil.

Warning: These methods are temporary. They do not remove the abrasive oxidized residue from the race. They simply provide a hydrodynamic film to reduce noise and friction for a period ranging from a few days to a heating season.

3.1 Lubricant Chemistry: Selecting the Correct Fluid

The choice of emergency lubricant is the single most critical variable.

• The Error of WD-40: Do NOT use standard WD-40. It is primarily a solvent (Stoddard Solvent) with a light mineral oil carrier. It will dissolve the remaining thickener, provide instant quietness, and then evaporate completely within 24-48 hours, leaving the bearing chemically stripped and prone to immediate catastrophic seizure.²⁰
• The Error of Detergent Motor Oil: Standard automotive motor oil (e.g., 5W-30) contains detergents designed to suspend soot in internal combustion engines. These detergents can react with the Lithium or Polyurea thickener in the bearing, causing it to liquefy and run out.
• The Solution: Turbine Oil (Zoom Spout): The optimal fluid for wicking is a paraffinic, non-detergent turbine oil (often sold as “Zoom Spout” or “3-in-One Motor Oil” in the blue can). It has high film strength, excellent oxidation resistance, and no detergents to degrade the remaining grease structure.²²
• The Upgrade: Synthetic Grease (Polyrex EM): If invasive injection is used, Mobil Polyrex EM is the exact grease specified for electric motor bearings. It is a polyurea-based grease that resists “bleed” at high temperatures.²³

3.2 Protocol A: The “Wick and Spin” Technique (Non-Invasive)

This method exploits the capillary action of the metal shields (ZZ type).

1. Preparation:

• Disconnect power to the furnace.
• Remove the inducer assembly from the furnace to allow vertical orientation (see Section 4.1 for removal steps).
• Clean the area where the shaft enters the bearing housing with a dry rag. Do not use solvents that might wash dirt into the bearing.

2. Application:

• Orient the motor so the shaft is vertical.
• Apply a generous bead of Turbine Oil (Zoom Spout) to the annulus between the rotating shaft and the stationary bearing shield.
• The Kinetic Assist: Slowly rotate the blower wheel or cooling fan by hand. This rotation breaks the surface tension and helps “pump” the oil down the shaft and past the shield gap.

3. The Thermal Assist:

• If the bearing is stubborn, apply gentle heat (hair dryer) to the bearing housing to expand the air inside.
• Apply the oil.
• As the bearing cools, the contracting air will create a partial vacuum, sucking the oil past the shield.²⁴

4. Saturation: Repeat this process until the bearing spins freely and quietly. Keep the motor vertical for 1-2 hours to allow full penetration.

3.3 Protocol B: The “Hypodermic Injection” Technique (Invasive)

This method is required for Sealed (2RS) bearings or stubborn shielded bearings that refuse to wick.

1. Instrumentation: Obtain a medical syringe with a fine-gauge needle (18-22 gauge). Fill it with Mobil Polyrex EM grease (if flowable) or a heavy synthetic oil (e.g., 20W-50 Synthetic).
2. Incision:

• Locate the rubber seal (black or red ring).
• Crucial Positioning: Pierce the seal at the extreme outer edge, near the stationary outer race. Do not pierce near the inner race, as this is where the seal lip contacts the rotating shaft. Damage here destroys the sealing integrity.²⁵
• Alternative: For metal shields, you cannot pierce them. You must drill a tiny hole (risky due to shavings) or gently pry the C-clip retainer to remove the shield entirely (if accessible).

3. Injection:

• Inject the lubricant. If using grease, do not fill more than 30% of the void volume. Overfilling causes “churning,” where the rolling elements constantly push through the grease, generating massive hydraulic heat that can destroy the bearing or motor windings.²⁶

4. Resealing:

• Clean the puncture site with alcohol.
• Apply a tiny dab of High-Temp RTV Silicone (Red or Black) to seal the needle hole.²⁵

4. The “Surgery”: Comprehensive Bearing Replacement Methodology

If lubrication fails or the user desires a permanent fix, replacing the bearings is the only path. This converts the “non-serviceable” Packard 48331 back into a serviceable asset. This section assumes the Packard 48331 architecture (Ball Bearings, Riveted C-Frame).

Safety Critical: Ensure all gas and electrical supplies are isolated before commencing.

4.1 Step 1: Assembly Extraction

1. Marking: Use a permanent marker to label the orientation of the pressure switch hose and the electrical leads (Black/White/Green).
2. Disconnect: Remove the pressure switch hose. Note: If the port is clogged with white residue (calcium/oxidation), clean it with a small drill bit or paper clip. This residue alone can cause furnace lockout.²
3. Unbolt: Remove the 3-4 hex screws securing the inducer assembly to the plastic collector box.
4. Gasket Preservation: Gently pry the assembly loose. The gasket (often fiberglass or foam) may stick. Use a putty knife to separate it carefully. If it tears, you must obtain a replacement gasket or use high-temperature RTV silicone to create a gas-tight seal upon reinstallation. Failure to seal this interface can lead to CO leakage.²⁷

4.2 Step 2: The Blower Wheel Extraction (The Crucible)

This is the point of highest failure probability. The blower wheel is secured to the shaft with a set screw.

1. Assessment: Inspect the hub. If it is rusted solid, prepare for battle.
2. Chemical Soak: Apply PB Blaster or Kroil (not WD-40) to the set screw and the shaft-hub interface. Allow to soak for at least 1-2 hours.
3. Set Screw Removal:

• Use a high-quality Allen key (usually 1/8″ or 5/32″). Ensure it seats fully.
• If it strips, use a Torx bit slightly larger than the stripped hole and hammer it in to gain bite, then turn.²⁸

4. The Thermal Shock Technique:

• If the wheel is stuck to the shaft after the screw is removed: Apply heat from a propane torch to the hub of the blower wheel.
• Physics: You want to expand the hub (aluminum/zinc) without expanding the shaft (steel). Aluminum expands faster than steel.
• Caution: Apply heat quickly and focused on the hub. Excessive heat will travel down the shaft and melt the plastic motor cooling fan or damage the armature insulation.¹⁸

5. Mechanical Extraction:

• Use two flat-head screwdrivers to gently pry under the hub, rocking it back and forth.
• Destructive Option (The “Shaft Cut”): If the wheel is fused and non-replaceable (due to parts scarcity), and you have a new motor, you can cut the old motor shaft with a Sawzall or Dremel cut-off wheel. This saves the blower wheel housing. You then drive the shaft stub out of the wheel on a bench vise using a punch.²⁹
• Note: Since the objective here is to repair the motor, cutting the shaft is only viable if you have a replacement rotor/shaft, which is unlikely. Therefore, patience with heat and penetrant is the only path.

4.3 Step 3: Motor Chassis Disassembly

The Packard 48331 uses a C-Frame construction where the bearing brackets are riveted to the stator.

1. Rivet Removal:

• Secure the motor in a vise.
• Center punch the center of each rivet head.
• Use a cobalt drill bit (approx. 5/32″ or #20) to drill through the rivet head until it pops off.¹¹
• Drive the remaining rivet body out with a pin punch.

2. Stator Separation:

• Gently pull the two end-bells (bearing brackets) away from the stator stack.
• Warning: The rotor will come out with one of the brackets. Be careful not to damage the copper windings of the stator.

3. Rotor Extraction: Pull the rotor out of the bearing brackets. You may need to polish the shaft with emery cloth to remove rust ridges that prevent it from sliding through the bearing bore.

4.4 Step 4: Bearing Identification and Sourcing

With the motor disassembled, you must identify the bearing size. This is a point of confusion in the research data, requiring verification.

• Scenario A (Most Likely for Packard 48331): 608 Series.

• Dimensions: 8mm ID x 22mm OD x 7mm Width.
• Evidence: Snippets ³¹ and ¹⁵ explicitly link the 608Z bearing to Goodman/Packard inducer repairs.
• Scenario B (Possible Variant): 626 Series.

• Dimensions: 6mm ID x 19mm OD x 6mm Width.
• Action: Measure the shaft diameter with calipers. If it is ~8mm (0.315″), order 608. If it is ~6mm (0.236″), order 626.

Bearing Specification for Order:

• Type: Deep Groove Radial Ball Bearing.
• Sealing: 2RS (Rubber Sealed) is preferred for the flue gas side to prevent contaminant ingress. ZZ (Metal Shielded) is acceptable for the cooling fan side.
• Clearance: C3 clearance (slightly looser) is preferred for high-heat electric motors to allow for thermal expansion, though standard CN clearance works for these small sizes.
• Grease: Pre-packed with Polyurea or Lithium Complex high-temp grease.

4.5 Step 5: Bearing Installation and Reassembly

1. Bearing Extraction:

• The old bearings are usually pressed into a formed pocket in the steel end-bell, sometimes held by a spring clip or swaged metal tabs.
• If swaged: Gently pry the metal tabs back or use a dremel to grind the lip slightly.
• Drive the old bearing out with a socket and hammer.

2. Bearing Insertion:

• Clean the pocket.
• Press the new bearing in. Apply pressure only to the Outer Race. Pressing on the inner race will brinell the balls and destroy the new bearing instantly.
• Secure the bearing. If the swaged tabs broke, use a high-strength retaining compound like Loctite 680 or 638 to bond the bearing outer race to the housing, or center-punch the housing metal to deform it against the bearing (staking).

3. Chassis Closing:

• Reinsert the rotor.
• Assemble the end-bells to the stator.
• Replace the drilled-out rivets with #8-32 or #10-32 Machine Screws and Nyloc Nuts.
• Alignment Tuning: Before tightening fully, spin the shaft. It should spin freely. If it drags, the bearings are misaligned. Tap the motor core gently with a mallet to center the self-aligning bearing assemblies (if spherical) or to settle the brackets. Tighten the screws incrementally in a cross pattern.

5. Logistics: Sourcing Strategies and Parts Cross-Reference

A major hurdle for the user is the “Trade Only” nature of the HVAC supply chain. Distributors like United Supply (Wall Township, NJ) often restrict sales to licensed contractors.³⁰

5.1 Breaking the “Trade Only” Barrier

1. Online Aggregators:

• SupplyHouse.com: Stock both the Packard 48331 and Fasco equivalents. They sell to the public.
• Amazon/eBay: The most reliable source for the specific 608Z or 626Z bearings. Search for “608Z Electric Motor Quality” or “GMN 608Z”.¹⁵
• Grainger/McMaster-Carr: Excellent for sourcing the specific bearings if you have the dimensions.

2. Local Options:

• Hardware Stores: Ace Hardware or Home Depot will not have the specific motor. They may have the 608 bearings in their “Skateboard” or “Hobby” section, but ensure they are not low-speed toy bearings. You need ABEC-3 or higher rated for 3000+ RPM.
• Bearing Distributors: Look for local industrial bearing suppliers (e.g., Motion Industries, Kaman). They sell bearings to anyone and can match the old one if you bring it in.

5.2 Cross-Reference Guide

If the Packard 48331 is out of stock, use these interchangeable part numbers ⁴:

Brand	Part Number	Notes
Goodman	B4833000S	OEM Part. Often priced higher ($200+).
Packard	48331	Preferred Aftermarket. Ball Bearing. ($130-$160).
Fasco	A188	Common replacement. Check if Sleeve or Ball bearing.
Fasco	7021-10958	OEM Fasco number.
Rotom	FB-RFB483	Canadian equivalent.
Trane	XX-2233-A	Compatible cross-listing.

6. Safety Verification and Post-Repair Testing

This repair touches the combustion air system. Verification is mandatory to prevent carbon monoxide poisoning or fire.

6.1 Carbon Monoxide (CO) Leak Test

After re-mounting the inducer assembly with the new/repaired motor:

1. Start the furnace.
2. Use an electronic CO detector or a combustion analyzer to “sniff” around the mating surface of the inducer motor and the collector box.
3. Any detection of CO indicates a failed gasket seal. Shut down immediately and re-seal with high-temp RTV silicone.

6.2 Pressure Switch Verification

1. Connect a manometer (in inches of water column) to the pressure switch tubing via a T-connector.
2. Run the furnace. Ensure the vacuum pulled by the inducer exceeds the rating printed on the switch (e.g., if switch is -0.60″ w.c., the inducer should pull -0.80″ to -1.20″ w.c.).
3. If the vacuum is weak, the bearings may be stiff, or the blower wheel vanes may be clogged with combustion deposits.

6.3 Amp Draw Test

1. Use a clamp meter to measure the amperage of the running inducer motor.
2. Target: ~1.8 Amps.³
3. Diagnosis:

• >2.0 Amps: The motor is struggling (binding bearings or rubbing wheel).
• <1.0 Amps: The motor is under-loaded (blockage in the intake/flue or blower wheel slipping on shaft).

7. Conclusion

While the HVAC industry categorizes the Goodman B4833000S/Packard 48331 as a disposable component, a forensic understanding of its shaded-pole, ball-bearing architecture permits successful refurbishment. The primary points of leverage for the user are:

1. Immediate Mitigation: Use Turbine Oil (not WD-40) via the “Wick and Spin” or “Syringe Injection” method to restore temporary function.
2. Long-Term Repair: Replace the internal bearings with high-quality 608-2RS Polyurea-greased units.
3. Critical Success Factor: The careful, non-destructive removal of the blower wheel using heat and penetrants is the single determinant of repair success.

By following these protocols, the user can restore the safety and functionality of the GMNT040-3 furnace, navigating around supply chain restrictions and planned obsolescence.

Works cited

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